Social Cognitive Theories Essay Example for Free

Social Cognitive Theories Essay SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES Social Cognitive views have been influenced by the humanist idea of uniqueness of human beings, that human beings are decision makers, planners and evaluators of behavior. Key Concepts: Social cognitive learning theorists emphasize the importance of both the influences of other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies on learning, and also that observational learning, modeling can lead to the formation of patterns of personality. Thought and behavior are closely interlined with the situation the person is in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: Introduction: Albert Bandura a modern theorist helped reshape the theoretical landscape of behaviorism. Bandura believes that three factors influence one another in determint of behavior: the environment, the behavior itself and personal or cognitive factors that the person brings into situation from earlier experience. Key Terms: 1. Cognitive Processes and Reciprocal Determinism 2. Observational Learning 3. Self Regulation 4. Self Efficacy Cognitive Processes and Reciprocal Determinism: Bandura and like-minded theorists call their modified brand of behaviorism social learning theory or social cognitive theory. Bandura (1982-1986) agrees with the fundamental thrust of behaviorism in that he believes that personality is largely shaped through learning. However, he contends that conditioning is not a mechanical process in which people are passive participants. Instead, he maintains that â€Å"people are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating, not just reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by external events†. Bandura advocates a position called reciprocal determinism. According to this notion, the environment does determine behavior (as skinner would argue). However, behavior also determines the environment (in other words, people can act to alter their environment). Moreover, personal factors (cognitive structures such as beliefs and expectancies) determine and are determined by both behavior and the environment. Thus, reciprocal determinism is the idea that internal mental events, external environmental events, and over behavior all influence one another. According to Bandura, humans are neither masters of their own destiny nor hapless victims buffered about by the environment. Instead, the truth lies somewhere between these two extremes. ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIOR PERSONAL / COGNITIVE FACTORS (EXPECTATIONS, BELIEFS, SELF-EFFICACY BANDURA’S RECEIPROCAL DETERMINISM Observational Learning: Bandura’s foremost theoretical contribution has been his description of observational learning. Observational learning occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. According to Bandura, both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously when one person observes another’s conditioning. For example, watching your sister get burned by a bounced check upon selling her old stereo could strengthen your tendency to be suspicious of others. Although your sister would be the one actually experiencing the negative consequences, they might also influence you – through observational learning. Bandura maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of behavior are shaped by the models that they are exposed to. He isn’t referring to the fashion models who dominate the mass media – although they do qualify. In observational learning, a model is a person whose behavior is observed by another. At one time or another, everyone serve as a model for others. As social learning theory has been refined, it has become apparent that some models are more influential than others. Both children and adults tend to imitate people they like or respect more than people they don’t. People are also especially prone to imitate the behavior of people whom they consider attractive or powerful. Self-regulation: Bandura notes, human beings often demonstrate an impressive capacity for the self-regulation of their own behavior. While people may often respond to external factors such as positive reinforcement and punishment, they sometimes choose to ignore these and to operate in terms of internal standards and values. We set our own goals, and we often provide our own rewards when we reach them – a process Bandura describes as self-reinforcement. Self-Efficacy: Bandura discusses how a variety of personal factors (aspects of personality) govern behavior. In recent years, the factor he has emphasized most is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. When self-efficacy is high, individuals feel confident that they can execute the responses necessary to earn reinforcers. When self-efficacy is low, individuals worry that the necessary responses may be beyond their abilities. Perceptions of self-efficacy are subjective and specific to certain kinds of tasks. For instance, you might feel extremely confident about your ability to handle difficult social situations but doubtful about your ability to handle academic challenges. Perceptions of self-efficacy can influence which challenges people tackle and how well they perform. Studies have found that feelings of greater self-efficacy are associated with greater success in giving up smoking; greater adherence to an exercise regimen; more success in coping with pain; greater persistence and effort in academic pursuits; higher levels of academic performance; enhanced performance in athletic competition; greater receptiveness to technological training and higher work-related performance, among many other things. What are the developmental antecedent of high self-efficacy? Schneewind asserts that parents can foster self-efficacy by providing a stimulating environment and by being responsive to their children’s behavior. An emphasis on warm support for children, early independence training, and non-punitive disciplinary techniques is also helpful. In contrast, parents who are authoritarian, intrusive, overprotective, or neglectful are likely to undermine self-efficacy in their offspring. Julian Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: Introduction: Rotter suggested that the likelihood of a given behavior occurring in a specific situation depends on the individuals expectancies concerning the outcomes the behavior will produce and the reinforcement value they attach to such outcomes – the degree to which the prefer one reinforcement to another. Key Terms: 1. Expectancies 2. Locus of Control Rotter developed his Social Learning Theory to incorporate cognitive factors. Rotter recognized that most the reinforcers we strive to obtain one social (e.g. Hugs, attention and that most learning occurs in social situation) Expectancies: The concept of expectancy is one of the most important elements of Rotter’s theory. When you take an exam apply for a job or ask for a date, you have some notion of the likelihood of success or failure. What you expect to happen has a powerful influence on your behavior, thought, feelings and in turn personality. Locus of Control: Locus of control involves the extent to which individuals believe that they or that external factors control their lives. Rotter focused on whether people place their locus of control inside themselves (internal) or in their environments (external). Locus of control influences how people view the world and how they identify the causes of success or failure in their lives. In an important way, people’s locus of control reflects their personality – their view of, and reactions to, the world. People with an external locus of control believe that they have little control over their lives. A college student may attribute his or her poor grade to a lousy teacher, feeling there was nothing he or she could have done to get an A. In contrast, individuals who develop an internal locus of control feel that they can master any course they take because they believe that through hard work they can do well in any subject. People develop expectations based on their beliefs about the sources of reinforcement in their environments. These expectations lead to specific behaviors described as personality. Reinforcement of these behaviors in turn strengthens expectancy and leads to increased belief in internal or external control.

Hammurabis Code :: essays research papers

Hammurabi’s Code The formers of the Hammurabi’s Code of Laws surely created strict rules with severe punishments for their violation. In fact, these laws played a big role in organization of Mesopotamian society. Reading these laws, reader may learn about ideals people of Mesopotamia had about crimes, their attitude to the lower and higher social classes, and legal rights between men and women. Reading the laws I noticed that many crimes were punished by death penalty. Many laws tell that guilty person has to pay the same price for the physical harm one did to another person or one’s relative. For instance: law 196 states (encyclopedia.com): â€Å" If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.† In addition, at that time, people were penalized to death for many crimes or wrongdoings that almost never would be penalized with capital punishment at a modern time. Among such felony and misdemeanors are stealing, robbery, accusation, adultery, and desertion. Hammur abi’s Code also, reveals inequality between social classes. Slaves were not treated by the laws the same as free-born people. According to the Code of Hammurabi, women had some legal rights, but these rights were not equal to men’s. Married women had a right to divorce as well as men. In fact, in order to acquire the right for divorce, a woman has to find a reasonable explanation for her desire, and only than the divorce could be possible. Overall, the Hammurabi’s Code of Laws showed that crimes in Mesopotamia were followed by severe punishments. Very often these punishments were death penalty. The laws were not equal between social classes, and slaves were subjected to the harsher punishments than free-born.

Deception Point Page 56

â€Å"He's breaking the law,† Gabrielle said. Isn't he? â€Å"Or so Marjorie Tench would have you believe. Candidates accept behind-the-scenes donations all the time from big corporations. It may not be pretty, but it's not necessarily illegal. In fact, most legal issues deal not with where the money comes from but how the candidate chooses to spend it.† Gabrielle hesitated, feeling uncertain now. â€Å"Gabs, the White House played you this afternoon. They tried to turn you against your candidate, and so far you've called their bluff. If I were looking for someone to trust, I think I'd stick with Sexton before jumping ship to someone like Marjorie Tench.† Yolanda's phone rang. She answered, nodding, uh-huh-ing, taking notes. â€Å"Interesting,† she finally said. â€Å"I'll be right there. Thanks.† Yolanda hung up and turned with an arched brow. â€Å"Gabs, sounds like you're off the hook. Just as I predicted.† â€Å"What's going on?† â€Å"I don't have a specific yet, but I can tell you this much-the president's press conference has nothing to do with sex scandals or campaign finance.† Gabrielle felt a flash of hope and wanted badly to believe her. â€Å"How do you know that?† â€Å"Someone on the inside just leaked that the press conference is NASA-related.† Gabrielle sat up suddenly. â€Å"NASA?† Yolanda winked. â€Å"This could be your lucky night. My bet is President Herney is feeling so much pressure from Senator Sexton that he's decided the White House has no choice but to pull the plug on the International Space Station. That explains all the global media coverage.† A press conference killing the space station? Gabrielle could not imagine. Yolanda stood up. â€Å"That Tench attack this afternoon? It was probably just a last-ditch effort to get a foothold over Sexton before the President had to go public with the bad news. Nothing like a sex scandal to take the attention away from another presidential flop. Anyhow, Gabs, I've got work to do. My advice to you-get yourself a cup of coffee, sit right here, turn on my television, and ride this out like the rest of us. We've got twenty minutes until show time, and I'm telling you, there is no way the President is going Dumpster-diving tonight. He's got the whole world watching. Whatever he has to say carries some serious weight.† She gave a reassuring wink. â€Å"Now give me the envelope.† â€Å"What?† Yolanda held out a demanding hand. â€Å"These pictures are getting locked in my desk until this is over. I want to be sure you don't do something idiotic.† Reluctantly, Gabrielle handed over the envelope. Yolanda locked the photos carefully in a desk drawer and pocketed the keys. â€Å"You'll thank me, Gabs. I swear it.† She playfully ruffled Gabrielle's hair on her way out. â€Å"Sit tight. I think good news is on the way.† Gabrielle sat alone in the glass cubicle and tried to let Yolanda's upbeat attitude lift her mood. All Gabrielle could think of, though, was the self-satisfied smirk on the face of Marjorie Tench this afternoon. Gabrielle could not imagine what the President was about to tell the world, but it was definitely not going to be good news for Senator Sexton. 65 Rachel Sexton felt like she was being burned alive. It's raining fire! She tried to open her eyes, but all she could make out were foggy shapes and blinding lights. It was raining all around her. Scalding hot rain. Pounding down on her bare skin. She was lying on her side and could feel hot tiles beneath her body. She curled more tightly into the fetal position, trying to protect herself from the scalding liquid falling from above. She smelled chemicals. Chlorine, maybe. She tried to crawl away, but she could not. Powerful hands pressed down on her shoulders, holding her down. Let me go! I'm burning! Instinctively, she again fought to escape, and again she was rebuffed, the strong hands clamping down. â€Å"Stay where you are,† a man's voice said. The accent was American. Professional. â€Å"It will be over soon.† What will be over? Rachel wondered. The pain? My life? She tried to focus her vision. The lights in this place were harsh. She sensed the room was small. Cramped. Low ceilings. â€Å"I'm burning!† Rachel's scream was a whisper. â€Å"You're fine,† the voice said. â€Å"This water is lukewarm. Trust me.† Rachel realized she was mostly undressed, wearing only her soaked underwear. No embarrassment registered; her mind was filled with too many other questions. The memories were coming back now in a torrent. The ice shelf. The GPR. The attack. Who? Where am I? She tried to put the pieces together, but her mind felt torpid, like a set of clogged gears. From out of the muddled confusion came a single thought: Michael and Corky†¦ where are they? Rachel tried to focus her bleary vision but saw only the men standing over her. They were all dressed in the same blue jumpsuits. She wanted to speak, but her mouth refused to formulate a single word. The burning sensation in her skin was now giving way to sudden deep waves of aching that rolled through the muscles like seismic tremors. â€Å"Let it happen,† the man over her said. â€Å"The blood needs to flow back into your musculature.† He spoke like a doctor. â€Å"Try to move your limbs as much as you can.† The pain racking Rachel's body felt as if every muscle was being beaten with a hammer. She lay there on the tile, her chest contracting, and she could barely breathe. â€Å"Move your legs and arms,† the man insisted. â€Å"No matter what it feels like.† Rachel tried. Each movement felt like a knife being thrust into her joints. The jets of water grew hotter again. The scalding was back. The crushing pain went on. At the precise instant she thought she could not withstand another moment, Rachel felt someone giving her an injection. The pain seemed to subside quickly, less and less violent, releasing. The tremors slowed. She felt herself breathing again. A new sensation was spreading through her body now, the eerie bite of pins and needles. Everywhere-stabbing-sharper and sharper. Millions of tiny needle-point jabs, intensifying whenever she moved. She tried to hold motionless, but the water jets continued to buffet her. The man above her was holding her arms, moving them. God that hurts! Rachel was too weak to fight. Tears of exhaustion and pain poured down her face. She shut her eyes hard, blocking out the world. Finally, the pins and needles began to dissipate. The rain from above stopped. When Rachel opened her eyes, her vision was clearer. It was then that she saw them. Corky and Tolland lay nearby, quivering, half-naked and soaked. From the looks of anguish on their faces, Rachel sensed that they had just endured similar experiences. Michael Tolland's brown eyes were bloodshot and glassy. When he saw Rachel, he managed a weak smile, his blue lips trembling. Rachel tried to sit up, to take in their bizarre surroundings. The three of them were lying in a trembling twist of half-naked limbs on the floor of a tiny shower room. 66 Strong arms lifted her. Rachel felt the powerful strangers drying her body and wrapping her in blankets. She was being placed on a medical bed of some sort and vigorously massaged on her arms, legs, and feet. Another injection in her arm. â€Å"Adrenaline,† someone said. Rachel felt the drug coursing through her veins like a life force, invigorating her muscles. Although she still felt an icy hollowness tight like a drum in her gut, Rachel sensed the blood slowly returning to her limbs. Back from the dead. She tried to focus her vision. Tolland and Corky were lying nearby, shivering in blankets as the men massaged their bodies and gave them injections as well. Rachel had no doubt that this mysterious assemblage of men had just saved their lives. Many of them were soaking wet, apparently having jumped into the showers fully clothed to help. Who they were or how they had gotten to Rachel and the others in time was beyond her. It made no difference at the moment. We're alive.

Mothers Against Drunk Driving Essay - 1975 Words

Mothers Against Drunk Driving In the year 2001 more then 800,000 injuries occurred in the United States from alcohol related accidents, while more than 40% of automobile crashes were due to the abuse of alcohol (MADD homepage). These overwhelming statistics are just a small piece of the very large puzzle that stuns the nation with deaths every year. For some people, these statistics are more than just phrases on paper they are words that are haunting reminders of the tragedies and losses they have experienced in their lifetime. One such mother was so distraught by the loss of her thirteen year old daughter Carrie Lightner, who was killed by a drunk driver, began the organization Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). On the other side of†¦show more content†¦As I opened up the homepage of MADD, I was struck with a picture of two young boys who appeared to be very happy children. However the headline had a chilling message that stated how they had both been killed by a drunk driver. Immediately I clicked o n this story and read on. As I reached the end of the article I felt the hot, compassionate tears streaming down my cheeks. I felt a great sympathy for the mother as she told the story of her children’s happiness and the events that her boys were experiencing at the time leading up to the accident. The tone from the writing gave me, the reader, the feelings of grief and loss in which the mother was going through and wishing to convey. The fact that I was struck with an abundance of compassion for this woman and how her world had been turned upside down, I realized that the MADD organization was already working for me. It went straight to my emotions, and got my sympathy. It gave me a story that left me in tears and got my thought process going, how could someone be so selfish and take the lives of two very innocent and loving children who had so much to look forward to in their future? It was simple enough, I would want to keep reading. For the next twenty minutes I found myself clicking on previous stories by others mothers, the section was a feature of a story for each week. The more stories I read the more heart broken I felt for these mothers and the more interested I was in theShow MoreRelatedMothers Against Drunk Driving Essay729 Words   |  3 PagesMothers Against Drunk Driving is a nonprofit organization in the United States and in Canada. The organization was founded on September 5, 1980 by Candy Lightn er. Lightner started the organization after her 13-year old daughter was killed by a drunk driver. The purpose of MADD is to make an effort in trying to stop drunk driving, help prevent underage drinking, seek for stricter driving policies, and help families affected by drunk driving. MADD has helped more than 330,000 lives and is still helpingRead More MADD: Mothers Against Drunk Driving Essay1939 Words   |  8 PagesMADD: Mothers Against Drunk Driving It is 2:20 in the morning when the phone rings. 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They will target and prevent drunk driving across the state by developing harsher laws and consequences for those found guilty of these offenses. Friedman uses many differen t perspectives on the issue by restating various North Carolina state representatives, and variousRead MoreEssay on MADD, A Driving Force for Change1257 Words   |  6 Pages M.A.D.D. is a political interest group for all mothers against drunk driving. It was specifically created for mothers of kids who have fallen victim to drunk drivers, whether it be in injury or in death. Founded on September 5th 1980, M.A.D.D. has made a huge impact on the government today and an even bigger impact on society. The idea of M.A.D.D. was first introduced by a mother, Candice Lightner, who lost her thirteen year old daughter in a car accident killed by an intoxicated driver. She took